Vasco da Gama was the first Portuguese sailor to discover the sea route between India and the west. He arrived on May 20, 1498, at Calicut (Kozhikode).
Sir Francis Drake was the English sailor able to move round the earth through the sea route.
Sir Thomas Roe was the English sailor who entered India for the first time with a petition letter in 1615.
The East India Company initially established on December 31, 1600, in London, England.
The two objectives of the East India Company to permanently rule in India were to establish trade dominance and to expand territorial control for economic exploitation.
The first trade centre of the English was established in 1612 at Surat, India.
Fort William is a historic British fort in Kolkata, India, built in 1696 and later rebuilt in 1758, serving as a major military and administrative base during British rule.
The two main divisions of the British administrative period of dependent India were the East India Company rule (1757–1858) and the British Crown rule (1858–1947).
The 'Government of India Act' was enacted in 1858 by the British Parliament with the objective of transferring the control of India from the East India Company to the British Crown following the Sepoy Mutiny.
The 'Indian Councils Act' was enacted in 1861 with the objective of introducing legislative councils to involve Indians in the governance process under British supervision.
The British made efforts through the East India Company by seeking trade permissions, establishing factories, and forming alliances with local rulers. They succeeded by gaining control over key ports like Surat and Madras, defeating rival European powers, and exploiting internal conflicts among Indian states to establish trade dominance.
The East India Company established trade centres at Surat, Madras, and Calcutta by securing trading rights from local rulers, building fortified factories, and using military support to protect their interests against local and European rivals.
Robert Clive was the most remarkable person. His strategies included: (1) defeating the Nawab of Bengal at Plassey in 1757, (2) forming alliances with local rulers, (3) using military superiority, and (4) establishing administrative control over Bengal.
The causes for the outbreak of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857 included discontent over the use of new Enfield rifles with greased cartridges, economic exploitation, social reforms offending religious sentiments, and poor treatment of sepoys.
Four important results were: (1) end of East India Company rule, (2) transfer of power to the British Crown, (3) reorganization of the Indian army, and (4) increased British control over Indian administration.
Four administrative changes were: (1) abolition of the East India Company, (2) establishment of the Secretary of State for India, (3) creation of the Indian Civil Service, and (4) direct governance by the British Crown.
Two main reforms of Lord Canning were the introduction of the Indian Councils Act of 1861 and the establishment of a more structured administrative system post-Mutiny.
Merits: (1) Introduced limited Indian representation, (2) Expanded legislative councils. Demerits: (1) Limited powers to Indians, (2) Maintained British control.
Local self-government during the British period saw the introduction of municipal bodies and district boards under the Ripon Resolution of 1882, aiming to involve Indians in local administration, though with limited autonomy and under British oversight.
Indians were included in civil services through competitive examinations starting in 1853, with gradual increases in recruitment. The growth included the establishment of the Indian Civil Service, which became a key administrative tool, though initially dominated by British officers.
Three differences are: (1) British services were dominated by British officers, while independent India’s are Indian-led, (2) British services served colonial interests, while independent India’s focus on national development, (3) British services had limited Indian participation, while independent India promotes inclusivity.